Era or Event: 1770s-1780s: War for Independence

Women Heroes

Courageous Women During the American Revolution

The contributions of women to the American Revolution are often neglected today. Many women demonstrated exemplary courage during this time. Here are a few examples.

In April, 1777, a large British force arrived in Fairfield, Connecticut. Marching through nearby Danbury, they searched for American supplies and burned property owned by patriots.1 A messenger from Danbury was sent to Col. Henry Ludington, the leader of a nearby militia, alerting him to what was happening and seeking his help. His militia was scattered throughout the countryside and  someone was needed to alert them and round them up. The Danbury messenger was exhausted from his ride and also unfamiliar with the area, so Sybil Ludington, Col. Ludington’s 16 year-old daughter, carried the message, riding throughout the night, across 40 miles of dangerous country.2 The militia gathered, and unable to save Danbury, were involved in the Battle of Ridgefield on April 27, 1777.

It was not just the men who signed the Declaration of Independence who risked death or imprisonment, or suffered personal tragedy, but their wives often did so as well — such as Elizabeth Lewis, wife of Declaration signer Francis Lewis.3 The Lewis’ home was in Long Island, and during the British occupation there, soldiers were dispatched to capture Elizabeth and destroy their property.4 As troops approached, a ship opened fire at the house (a cannonball even struck right beside where she stood) but Elizabeth refused to yield or retreat. The British captured her, holding her in dreary conditions with little food and no change of clothes. After several months, she was eventually freed through the efforts of George Washington and Congress but her health never recovered and she died in 1779.women-heroes-3

Several women worked actively as spies for the American cause, supplying the army with much needed intelligence. For example, Lydia Darrah, hosted a meeting of British officers in December, 1777. Listening in secret to their meeting, and learning of their plans to attack George Washington’s army at White Marsh, she alerted the Americans, who were able to prepare for the planned surprise attack.5 Another example is Jane Thomas. Her husband, Col. John Thomas, was a prisoner of the British for fourteen months.6 On a visit to him, she learned of plans to attack the Americans at Cedar Spring. Riding almost sixty miles, she alerted them to danger, giving them time to prepare their defense against the British.7

These and many additional examples show that women of the Revolution played key roles in America’s fight for independence and should be honored during Women’s History Month.

* Originally published: Dec. 31, 2016

Endnotes

1 Richard Buel, “The Burning of Danbury,” ConnecticutHistory.org, accessed May 8, 2025.
2 Martha J. Lamb & Mrs. Burton Harrison, History of the city of New York (New York: A.S. Barnes Company, 1896), II:159-160; Willis Fletcher Johnson, Colonel Henry Ludington: A Memoir (New York: 1907), 89-90; National Postal Museum, “Sybil Ludington,” Smithsonian, accessed May 8, 2025.
3 Benson Lossing, Biographical Sketches of the Signers of the Declaration of American Independence (New York: George F. Cooledge & Brother, 1848), 71-73.
4 “Elizabeth Annesley Lewis,” The Pioneer Mothers of America (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1912), 3:119-126; L. Carroll Judson, A Biography of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1839), 64-66.
5 Elizabeth F. Ellet, The Women of the American Revolution (New York: Baker and Scribner, 1848), 171-177
6 “Col. John and Jane Thomas,” The Historical Marker Database, accessed May 8, 2025.
7 Ellet, Women of the American Revolution (1848), 250-260.

Black Soldiers in the Revolution

Sadly, today we are routinely taught the negatives of American history — we emphasis the bad and the ugly with nearly no mention of the good. Consequently, we hear the many ways that Americans did not always live up to the ideals of our founding, especially that black Americans were despised and enslaved. This is indeed part of the story, but there is much more. For example, on the positive side, did you know that many black Americans played key roles in the War for Independence? Consider just three.

James Armistead1 black-soldiers-in-the-revolution-1from Virginia worked closely with Marquis de Lafayette.2 He was able to infiltrate the camp of the patriot-turned-traitor, Benedict Arnold (then a British general after his defection from the Americans), and later the camp of British General Lord Cornwallis. Armistead obtained vital information about British plans and troop movements that he fed back to Lafayette and George Washington. His information allowed the American forces to initiate the Battle of Yorktown,3 which led to the end of the American Revolution. For his military services, Armistead was granted a retirement pension from Virginia.4

In December 1776, the second-in-command of the American Army, General Charles Lee, was taken prisoner by the British.5 To obtain his release, a prisoner exchange for a British general of the same rank was needed. Lt. Col. William Barton therefore undertook a daring plan to slip into the British stronghold at Newport, Rhode Island, capture British General Richard Prescott, and return him to the American side before the British learned of his capture.6 Cassell's History of the United States Barton hand-selected about forty elite soldiers, who silently slipped past the main British force and overpowered the guards protecting the general. They had only to break down the door to his room and grab Prescott. One of the black commandos on the mission, Prince Sisson – a powerful man – stepped forward and charged the door. Using his own head as a battering ram, the locked door gave way and Prince entered the quarters and seized the surprised general.7 The group safely returned with Prescott, who was subsequently exchanged for General Charles Lee. The daring act of Sisson is still celebrated to this day.

Wentworth Cheswell, black-soldiers-in-the-revolution-3grandson of a slave, had a long career in public office.7 Elected in 1768 as a town constable in New Hampshire, he became one of the first blacks elected to office in America. In 1770, he was a town selectman, considered as one of the “town fathers” in the community. Other public offices he held included that of Auditor, Assessor, Coroner, Moderator (presiding over town meetings), and Justice of the Peace.8 In the latter role, he oversaw trials, settled disputes, and executed legal documents. Altogether, Cheswell held some form of public office for 49 years. During the Revolution, he was a messenger for the Committee of Safety, carrying intelligence and messages back and forth between strategic operational centers. It was in this position that Cheswell made an all-night ride, similar to the one undertaken by Paul Revere, warning citizens of imminent British invasion. In 1777, Cheswell enlisted in a company of Light Horse Volunteers commanded by Colonel John Langdon, who later became a signer of the U.S. Constitution.9 Cheswell has a lasting legacy as a patriot, teacher, church leader, historian, archeologist, educator, judge, and elected official. He is a black patriot worthy of honoring and remembering.

In the WallBuilders library, we are blessed to have some military pay documents that were issued to various black soldiers during the Revolution10 (such as those pictured below) as well as some documents signed by Wentworth Cheswell11 (pictured above).

black-soldiers-in-the-revolution-4
black-soldiers-in-the-revolution-5

Let’s put some of the good stories back into Black History Month by acknowledging courageous black patriots in the American Revolution.

Endnotes

1 “Black History Issue 2004,” WallBuilders.
2 “Marquis de Lafayette,” National Park Service, accessed January 31, 2024.
3 “Battle of Yorktown begins,” History, updated September 2020.
4 “James Armistead,” Biography, July 2, 2020.
5 lack History Issue 2004,” WallBuilders; William Nell, The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution (Boston: Robert F. Wallcut, 1855), 127.
6 “Barton, William,” Appletons’ Cyclopaedia of American Biography, eds. James Grant Wilson & John Fiske (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1888), I:188; Nell, Colored Patriots (1855), 127.
7 “A Black Patrioti: Wentworth Cheswell,” WallBuilders.
8 “Cheswell,” PBS, accessed January 31, 2024; “Wentworth Cheswell,” Britannica Kids, accessed January 31, 2024.
9 “John Langdon: New Hampshire,” Robert K. Wright, Jr. & Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., Solider-Statesmen of the Constitution (Washington, DC: Center of Military History United States Army, 1987), 100-102.
10 “Black Revolutionary War Soldiers Pay,” WallBuilders.
11 “Wentworth Cheswell Documents,” WallBuilders.

Who Was Charles Carroll? Take the Quiz!

Charles Carroll of Carrollton

Who in the world is Charles Carroll? Sadly, few Americans today know the answer to this question. Test your knowledge of this famous Founding Father by taking the following quiz!

  1. True or False: Charles Carroll was the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence.
  2. True or False: He was present for the vote on the Declaration of Independence.
  3. True or False: He was involved with a bill for the abolition of slavery in Maryland.
  4. True or False: He helped create a major railroad company in America.
  5. How many children did Carroll have?
  6. Charles Carroll was the only signer of the Declaration to be a member of what religious group?

Charles Carroll was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, helped draft the 1776 original constitution of Maryland, and was an original United States Senator where he helped frame the Bill of Rights.

At WallBuilders, we have a vast collection of historical documents, including several handwritten letters from Charles Carroll. In an interesting one from 1825 to Charles Wharton (an Episcopal clergyman), Carroll makes a very clear statement about his personal faith, declaring:

Too much of my time & attention have been misapplied on matters to which an impartial Judge, penetrating the secrets of hearts, before whom I shall soon appear, will ascribe merit deserving recompense. On the mercy of my redeemer I rely for salvation and on His merits; not on the works I have done in obedience to His precepts [Ephesians 2:8-9].

 

How did you do? Check your answers below!

 

  1. True: Charles Carroll died on November 14, 1832.
  2. False: The actual vote for the Declaration of Independence took place on July 4, 1776, but Carroll was not present for the vote.
  3. True: In December 1789, Charles Carroll was on the committee in the Maryland state senate who were instructed to confer on a bill for the “gradual abolition of slavery.” Carroll reported on behalf of the committee in favor of discussing this bill, but his recommendation was ignored and the bill did not pass.
  4. True: Charles Carroll helped establish the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company in 1828.
  5. Seven
  6. Catholic

*Originally Posted: January 2, 2017

What do you know about Naphtali Daggett?

what-do-you-know-about-naphtali-daggett-1

If your answer is – “Not much!” you are probably not alone. Naphtali Daggett should be celebrated both for his stand against the British, and for his many years of service to Yale University.

In the 1640s, clergymen unsuccessfully attempted to form the college. Their plan finally came to fruition when Connecticut founded the college on October 9, 1701 1  – 314 years ago this month. Its official 1701 charter (see below) expressed its purpose that “youth may be instructed in the arts and sciences [and] through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted for public employment both in Church and civil State.”2

what-do-you-know-about-naphtali-daggett-2

As with nearly all American universities, the early presidents of Yale were clergymen – a practice that continued until the twentieth century. One of its presidents was the Rev. Naphtali Daggett. In 1777, as the American Revolution was in full stride, Daggett resigned as President of Yale. 3 In 1779, British troops marched into town, and in an effort to give the students and townspeople time to flee; Daggett went out to fight the British. Eventually, he was the only one left, facing 2,500 enemy troops. His fight was short-lived and in 1780, he died as the result of the wounds he received.  4 To learn more about this remarkable patriot, see Tim Barton’s video.

Discover the irreplaceable part the American clergy played in the forming of our nation.

The Role of Pastors and Christians in Civil Government

1 “About: History,” Yale University, 2015; “Today in History: October 9,” Library of Congress, February 14, 2011.
2 “About: History,” Yale University, 2015.
3 “Office of the President: Past Presidents,” Yale University, 2015.
4 William B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit (New York: Robert Carter and Brothers, 1859), 1:481-482, Chauncey A. Goodrich quoting his father Elizur Goodrich; John Warner Barber, Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. (Worcester: Warren Lazzell, 1844), 114-115.

Inspiring America: Nathan Hale

inspiring-america-nathan-hale-2The year 1776 is well known in American history. Obviously, it is directly associated with the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it is also the year Nathan Hale gave his life for America. [1] A simple schoolteacher, he wanted to serve his country. [2] Military intelligence about the British was badly needed, which meant doing undercover work as a spy. [3] He volunteered for this assignment. His friends warned him that he would fail, for he did not know how to lie — often a requisite trait for a good spy. [4]

He seemed to be succeeding in his mission and was returning to the American Army, when one of his relatives turned him in to the British, who captured him on September 21, 1776.  [5] The British executed him the following day, denying his last request for a Bible to comfort him. His last words before he was hung were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” [6]

inspiring-america-nathan-hale-3These words have inspired generations of Americans, and were regularly taught to school students. But in recent years, Nathan Hale and heroes like him have largely disappeared from American public education as well as many history books. We need to reintroduce American students (and even adults) to our forgotten heroes and thus ignite the patriotic spirit in younger generations. As children across the nation have now returned to school, help inspire a child that you know with the amazing legacy left us by those who have come before.

One way to do this is through uplifting books designed for youth. For example, Patriots, Redcoats, & Spies is an historical novel tracing the efforts of two teenage boys fighting for the American cause by carrying out a secret mission as spies. Just like Nathan Hale, these fourteen year old boys also fight hardships and discovery at every turn. Find out what happens to them in Patriots, Redcoats, & Spies!

We also have some two dozen biographies designed for young Americans in our Biographies series. Give your child — or children you know, or even yourself — a chance to learn about some of the greats in American history, including Abigail Adams, the Wright Brothers, George Washington Carver, and so many others. Get inspired with accounts of the heroes who made America great.

[1] Dictionary of American History, James Truslow Adams, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), Vol. III, p. 5.

[2] I. W. Stuart, Life of Captain Nathan Hale, The Martyr-Spy of the American Revolution (Hartford: F.A. Brown, 1856), pp. 28-44.

[3] Benson J. Lossing. Seventeen Hundred and Seventy-Six, or the War of Independence; A History of the Anglo-American, From the Period of the Union of the Colonies Against the French, to the Inauguration of Washington, the First President of the United States of America (New York: Edward Walker, 1847), p. 206 note.

[4] Mrs. Maria Campbell, Revolutionary Services and Civil Life of General William Hull (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1848) p. 35. See also, Benson J. Lossing, The Two Spies: Nathan Hale and John Andre, (New York: De. Applerton and Company, 1886), p. 14.

[5] Dictionary of American History, James Truslow Adams, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940),  Vol. III, p. 5. See also, I.W. Stuart, Life of Captain Nathan Hale, the martyr-spy of the American revolution (Hartford : F. A. Brown; 1856), p. 110; and George Dudley Seymour, Documentary Life of Nathan Hale, Comprising All Available Official and Private Documents Bearing on the Life of the Patriot (New-Haven: Privately Printed for the Author, The Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company, 1941), p. 158, “Colonel Greene’s Picture of Nathan Hale as a School-Teacher: Testimony of Samuel Green respecting Nathan Hale given to me [Isaac W. Stuart]; and by me taken in the historical hall January, 1847.”

[6] Dictionary of American History, James Truslow Adams, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), Vol. III, p. 5, see also George Dudley Seymour, Documentary Life of Nathan Hale, Comprising All Available Official and Private Documents Bearing on the Life of the Patriot (New-Haven: Privately Printed for the Author, The Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company, 1941), p. 310.

Islamic Terrorism: Two Hundred Years Old?

Brutal events in the Middle East continue to receive high billing in news headlines: beheadings and shootings by ISIS; the slaughter of Christians; increased attacks against numerous nations; the U.S. Embassy in Libya evacuated; and so forth. Such news always comes with concern, but these type of reports are not new.Most Americans are unaware that Islamic terrorists have been attacking Americans from the time that we became an independent nation.

islamic-terrorism-two-hundred-years-old-1 When the American Revolution ended in 1783, America turned its attention to dealing with five Muslim nations that regularly targeted Americans overseas: Tunis, Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, and Turkey. So in 1784, the Continental Congress dispatched John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson to try to negotiate an end to the unprovoked attacks. The diplomatic efforts largely failed, and the aggression continued.

By the time that Jefferson took office as president 17 years later in 1801, almost one-fifth of the federal budget was being spent to placate the terrorists. Deciding that it was time for the attacks to come to an end, Jefferson took the brand-new Navy, loaded the ships with Marines, and dispatched them to end the constant threat.

islamic-terrorism-two-hundred-years-old-2After five years of fighting terrorist forces and freeing captured Americans, Tripoli finally signed a treaty and the hostilities ceased — temporarily. But when America became embroiled in the War of 1812, Algerian terrorists began once again to attack American ships.

In 1815 when peace was reached with the British, President James Madison sent the military against Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Finally, on August 9, 1815 — two hundred years ago (>and 31 years after the conflict began) — a peace treaty was signed. To read the documents of the first American War Against Terror and to see the terrorists’ motivations for attacking Americans is just like watching today’s news reports. To help understand what is happening now and what will be required to end the conflict, David Barton shares the history of America’s First War on Terror.

On This Day In History: July 29, 1775

on-this-day-in-history-july-29-1775-1With the recent hostility against military chaplains, it is worth recalling the distinguished history of the chaplain corps as it celebrates its 240th birthday.

On July 29, 1775, the Army Chaplain Corps was organized by the Continental Congress. Numerous famous leaders have served as military chaplains, including Robert Treat Paine, a signer of the Declaration of Independence.

WallBuilders has numerous original sermons preached by those who served as Revolutionary War chaplains, including Manasseh Cutler (chaplain to four different units), Benjamin Trumbull (also a noted historian), and Timothy Dwight (who later became President of Yale).

on-this-day-in-history-july-29-1775-2The rich legacy of the service and sacrifice of chaplains continued long after the American Revolution. For example, Hiram Rhodes Revels, America’s first black U.S. Senator, was a chaplain during the Civil War. James Naismith, who invented the game of basketball, was a chaplain in WWI. During WWII, the “Four Chaplains” gave their lives to save hundreds of soldiers during the sinking of the Dorchester.

Although Chaplains are now under direct assault from Progressives and Secularists, their work is indispensable to the spiritual, mental, and emotional well-being of America soldiers, sailors, and airmen.

So, Happy Birthday to the military chaplain corps!

United States Navy

The US Navy dates its origins back to 1775. It began with an August 26, 1775 instruction from Rhode Island to their representatives in the Continental Congress to call for the establishment of a navy, explaining that “every principle, Divine and human, require us to obey that great and fundamental Law of Nature — self preservation — until peace shall be restored upon constitutional principles.”

united-states-navy-1The Continental Congress, not in session at that time, took up the issue when it returned and on October 13, 1775, the Continental Navy was created. The Continental Navy peaked at 31 ships in 1777 and contributed to key victories, but by the war’s end in 1783, it had shrunk amid losses. It was fully disbanded in 1785 after the Treaty of Paris.

This action, however, left American commercial ships in the Mediterranean unprotected. So in 1784, five Muslim nations began attacking American ships and killing and enslaving sailors. With no Navy to deter these terrorists, the United States government’s only recourse was to make huge extortion payments to the terrorists in exchange for their promise to limit future attacks. Frustrated by the navy’s absence and mounting pirate ransoms, President Washington urged Congress to rebuild in 1794, authorizing six frigates. Congress agreed and President John Adams executed and expanded the plan during the 1798 Quasi-War with France. President Thomas Jefferson then used the Navy to launch America’s first war on Muslim terrorists, defeating them and ending their attacks against American citizens and interests.

united-states-navy-2Following this, the Navy slowly shrank in size until it numbered only 40 combat-ready ships by the beginning of the Civil War (the Confederates had none, though they built a formidable ironclad force). The War resulted in a naval build up on both sides, with several major naval battles. (Pictured on the right, is the Battle of Hampton Roads, the first encounter between ironclad armored ships.)

After the War, the Navy once again shrank, but during WWII, it was rebuilt. By the end of 1945, the US Navy consisted of over 1,300 major combat ships (such as battleships, cruisers, aircraft carriers, destroyers, and submarines), over 83,000 mine laying ships and landing craft, with over 3.3 million naval personnel.

Military cutbacks under the Obama administration once again dramatically reduced the size of the Navy, leaving only 275 ships and 330,000 active duty naval personnel, with 100,000 reserves.

The pattern is clear: when we dramatically cut the military, we invite outside attacks. So, while remembering the origins of the US Navy, let’s pray for all those that serve in that branch — and indeed, for those who serve in all branches of our Armed Forces to keep Americans safe around the world!

Brave Soldiers of the Cross

America’s Military Chaplains
brave-soldiers-of-the-cross-1On August 16th, 1777, two hundred and thirty-nine years ago, the Battle of Bennington was fought by a band of volunteers opposing the advance of British General Burgoyne’s army. Among these volunteers was Chaplain Thomas Allen, the “Fighting Parson of Bennington.” Before the battle began, he led his soldiers in prayer that God would grant victory. (In WallBuilders’ collection, you can see a note from him, as well as read a sermon he preached years later.)

Other notable chaplains in the War for Independence included Benjamin Trumbull, who in one battle sat on his horse in full view of the enemy, firing his musket and ducking behind the horse’s neck if ever a bullet came close.

Samuel Springbrave-soldiers-of-the-cross-2 was another courageous chaplain, serving as part of the 1775 expedition into Quebec with Arnold’s army. Before deploying, he preached a sermon to the troops from Exodus 33:15: “Lord if your Spirit does not go with us, then do not send us.” Spring starved along with the rest of the army on the mission, and they all rejoiced when a moose was finally shot to help relieve their extreme hunger.

The Rev. William Emerson was at the Battle of Concord in 1775 to help spiritually encourage those fighting the British. Dressed in his black clerical robes, and with his musket in hand, he exhorted the others, “Let us stand our ground! If we die, let us die here!” Encouraging a frightened 18-year-old, he told him, “Stand your ground, Harry! Your cause is just, and God will bless you!”

brave-soldiers-of-the-cross-3Timothy Dwight (pictured on the left), who had read the Bible by age 4 and began a self study of Latin at age 6, volunteered for the Continental Army when his college was threatened by the British. He once preached a sermon to the troops that was so relevant to what was specifically occurring at that time that American General Israel Putnam actually questioned whether his text was in the Bible or whether he had invented it; it was indeed from the Bible.

There are numerous other notable chaplains in the Revolution, including signer of the Declaration, Robert Treat Paine. You can read some of their sermons in WallBuilders’ library as well as learn more about their astounding lives and deeds.

brave-soldiers-of-the-cross-4An ardent champion of military chaplains was George Washington. One of the first things he did as a young officer in the French and Indian War was to petition Virginia Governor Robert Dinwiddie to provide a chaplain for the troops. When Dinwiddie refused, Washington himself filled that role. When he became Commander-in-Chief during the Revolution, he issued several general orders respecting chaplains — such as this one from 1777 referencing a Day of Thanksgiving declared by the Continental Congress.

America has a long, proud history of military chaplains, but today they are under attack. As we remember the Battle of Bennington, let’s remember the long history of our military chaplains and pray for and support those chaplains that serve our Armed Forces today.

America’s Founders at College

Too many indisputable facts from American history are ignored today because they impede the direction many progressives want to move culture. For example, while they claim that the Founders were largely secularists, few today know that most of them were graduates of colleges or universities that specialized in training ministers of the Gospel.
americas-founders-at-college-1Princeton was founded in 1746, and John Witherspoon, a Gospel minister and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was the college’s president from 1768-1794. He trained scores of individuals who became national and state leaders. Princeton required that “every student shall attend worship in the college hall morning and evening.”

Yale University, founded in 1701, had Thomas Clap as its president from 1740-1766, when many of the Founders attended school there. Clap affirmed:

The original end and design of colleges was to instruct, educate, and train up persons for the work of the ministry.

americas-founders-at-college-2Harvard University was founded in 1636. (Pictured on the right is the original 1650 Harvard incorporation charter from the WallBuilders library.) Josiah Quincy, Harvard’s president from 1829 to 1845, noted:

[T]he College was conducted as a theological institution. . . having religion for its basis and chief object.

Altogether, 29 signers of the Declaration graduated from religiously-founded universities. But to acknowledge this today would certainly contradict the common educational assertion that our Founders were largely atheists, agnostics, and deists who wanted a secular country. But those assertions are not true.

americas-founders-at-college-3Gouverneur Morris, a signer of the Constitution and the most active member of the Constitutional Convention, openly asserted:

Religion is the only solid basis of good morals; therefore, education should teach the precepts of religion and the duties of man towards God.

In fact, he warned:

There must be religion. What that ligament is torn, society is disjointed and its members perish. . . . The most important of all lessons is the denunciation of ruin to every state that rejects the precepts of religion.

Take note, America! This is a good warning to remember today.

In Four Centuries of American Education you can find out more about the deeply religious nature of education in early America and how Bible-based public education continued literally for centuries, ending only in recently years.