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America’s Black Robe Regiment Part 3

Part 3 – Faith in the Marketplace

In this final article on the historic role of American pastors, we look at the influence of the young nation’s ministers in furthering biblical principles in government and society.

Political Preachers

Christian clergy not only largely defined America’s unique political theory and even defended it in military combat, but they were also leaders in the national legislative councils to help implement those ideals. For example, Rev. Dr. John Witherspoon was a member of the Continental Congress who served during the Revolution on the Board of War as well as on over one hundred congressional committees.¹ Other ministers who served in the Continental Congress included Revs. Joseph Montgomery, Hugh Williamson, John Zubly, and more.

Numerous ministers also served in state legislatures, such as Rev. Jacob Green of New Jersey, who helped oust the British colonial government and was chairman of the committee that drafted the state’s original constitution in 1776;² Rev. Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg, who was influential in Pennsylvania ;³ Rev. Samuel Stillman, who helped draft Massachusetts’ 1780 constitution;⁴ etc.

john witherspoon — *Rev. John Witherspoon*

When hostilities ceased, Christian ministers led in the movement for a federal constitution. For example, Revs. Jeremy Belknap, Samuel Stanhope Smith, John Witherspoon, and James Manning began pointing out the defects of the Articles of Confederation.⁵ And when the US Constitution was finally complete and submitted to the states for ratification, nearly four dozen clergymen were elected as ratifying delegates,⁶ many of whom played key roles in securing its adoption in their respective states.

Following the adoption of the new federal Constitution, ministers were highly active in celebrating its ratification. For example, of the parade in Philadelphia, signer of the Declaration Benjamin Rush boasted:

The clergy formed a very agreeable part of the procession. They manifested by their attendance their sense of the connection between religion and good government. They. . . . marched arm in arm with each other to exemplify the Union.⁷

When the first federal Congress under the new Constitution convened, several ministers were Members, including Revs. Frederick and Peter Muhlenberg, Abiel Foster, Benjamin Contee, Abraham Baldwin, and Paine Wingate.

Ministers were intimately involved in every aspect of introducing, defining, and securing America’s civil and religious liberties. A 1789 Washington, D.C., newspaper enthusiastically reported:

Our truly patriotic clergy boldly and zealously stepped forth and bravely stood our distinguished sentinels to watch and warn us against approaching danger; they wisely saw that our religious and civil liberties were inseparably connected and therefore warmly excited and animated the people resolutely to oppose and repel every hostile invader. . . . May the virtue, zeal and patriotism of our clergy be ever particularly remembered.⁸

Ministers Train the Next Generation

Besides their contributions to government and civil and religious liberty, the Black Robe Regiment was also largely responsible for education in America. Understanding that only a literate people well versed in the teachings of the Bible could sustain free and enlightened government, ministers established an education system that would teach and preserve the religious principles so indispensable to those civil and religious liberties.

Consequently, in 1635 the Puritans established America’s first public school,⁹ and in 1647 passed America’ first public education law (“The Old Deluder Satan Act”¹⁰). In 1636, Harvard University was established through the generosity of Puritan minister John Harvard. Following that, ten Congregational ministers founded Yale;¹¹ Princeton by Presbyterian ministers Jonathan Dickinson, John Pierson, and Ebenezer Pemberton;¹² William and Mary by Episcopal minister James Blair;¹³ Dartmouth by Congregational minister Eleazar Wheelock;¹⁴ etc.

For the next two-and-a-half centuries Gospel ministers founded and led American educational institutions. By 1860, ninety-one percent of all college presidents were ministers of the Gospel, as were more than a third of all university faculty members.¹⁵ Of the 246 colleges founded by the close of that year, only seventeen were not affiliated with some denomination;¹⁶ and by 1884, eighty-three percent of America’s 370 colleges still remained denominational colleges.¹⁷ Noah Webster (the “Schoolmaster to America”) confirmed, “to them [the clergy] is popular education in this country more indebted than to any other class of men.”¹⁸

The Pastors Praised

Throughout the founding of our nation, both enemy and patriot alike agreed America owed her establishment to the tireless involvement of the American pulpit. For example, John Adams rejoiced that “the pulpits have thundered”¹⁹ and specifically identified several ministers among the “characters the most conspicuous, the most ardent, and influential” in the “awakening and a revival of American principles and feelings” that led to American independence.²⁰

Subsequent generations faithfully reported the great and positive influence of the Revolutionary clergy. For example:

As a body of men, the clergy were pre-eminent in their attachment to liberty. The pulpits of the land rang with the notes of freedom.²¹ The American Quarterly Register [MAGAZINE], 1833
If Christian ministers had not preached and prayed, there might have been no revolution as yet; or had it broken out, it might have been crushed.²² Bibliotheca Sacra [BRITISH PERIODICAL], 1856
The ministers of the Revolution were, like their Puritan predecessors, bold and fearless in the cause of their country. No class of men contributed more to carry forward the Revolution and to achieve our independence than did the ministers. . . . By their prayers, patriotic sermons, and services [they] rendered the highest assistance to the civil government, the army, and the country.²³ B. F. Morris, HISTORIAN, 1864
The Constitutional Convention and the written Constitution were the children of the pulpit.²⁴ Alice Baldwin, HISTORIAN, 1918
Had ministers been the only spokesman of the rebellion—had Jefferson, the Adamses, and [James] Otis never appeared in print, the political thought of the Revolution would have followed almost exactly the same line. . . . In the sermons of the patriot ministers . . . we find expressed every possible refinement of the reigning political faith.²⁵ Clinton Rossiter, HISTORIAN, 1953

The American clergy were faithful exponents of the fullness of God’s Word, applying its principles to every aspect of life, shaping America’s institutes and culture. They were also at the forefront of proclaiming liberty, resisting tyranny, and opposing any encroachments on God-given rights and freedoms. In 1898, Methodist bishop and church historian Charles Galloway rightly observed of these ministers:

Mighty men they were, of iron nerve and strong hand and unblanched cheek and heart of flame. God needed not reeds shaken by the wind, not men clothed in soft raiment [Matthew 11:7-8], but heroes of hardihood and lofty courage. . . . And such were the sons of the mighty who responded to the Divine call.²⁶

Ministers during the Revolutionary period were not unique; they were simply continuing what ministers had been doing to shape American government and culture in the century and a half preceding the Revolution.

Conclusion

History demonstrates that America’s elective governments, her educational system, and a number of other positive aspects of American life and culture were the product of biblically thinking pastors and Christian leaders. Today, however, as the church’s influence has waned, many of these institutions have come under unprecedented attack and our traditional freedoms have been significantly eroded. It is time for America’s ministers to understand and reclaim their important, God-given positions of influence. Rev. Charles Finney, a leader of the Second Great Awakening, reminded ministers in his day:

Brethren, our preaching will bear its legitimate fruits. If immorality prevails in the land, the fault is ours in a great degree. If there is a decay of conscience, the pulpit is responsible for it. If the public press lacks moral discrimination, the pulpit is responsible for it. If the church is degenerate and worldly, the pulpit is responsible for it. If the world loses its interest in religion, the pulpit is responsible for it. If Satan rules in our halls of legislation, the pulpit is responsible for it. If our politics become so corrupt that the very foundations of our government are ready to fall away, the pulpit is responsible for it. Let us not ignore this fact, my dear brethren; but let us lay it to heart and be thoroughly awake to our responsibility in respect to the morals of this nation.²⁷

America once again needs the type of courageous ministers that cause her enemies to fear, and the righteous to rejoice. It is time to reinvigorate the Black Robe Regiment!

Continue The Series

Discover the many ways that colonial pastors shaped their communities and eventually American independence. (Part 1)
Discover how American ministers not only laid the foundation for American Independence, but also put their lives on the line to secure it. (Part 2)

1 Varnum Lansing Collins, President Witherspoon: A Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1925), 2:4.

2 William B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit (New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 1856), 3:138.

3 “Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, 1780 – 1783,” Pennsylvania House of Representatives, accessed October 12, 2026, https://www.palegis.us/house/house-speaker-biographies/speaker-results/house-speaker-biography?bioId=113.

4 Patriot Preachers of the American Revolution, ed. Frank Moore (Boston: Gould and Lincoln: 1860), 260.

5 See for example: Jeremy Belknap, The Belknap Papers, Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Fifth Series (Boston: By the Society, 1877), 2:206-207, letter to Ebenezer Hazard, May 19, 1783; Michael Kraus, “Charles Nisbet and Samuel Stanhope Smith— Two Eighteenth Century Educators,” The Princeton University Library Chronicle 6, no. 1 (1944), 32, letter dated February 4, 1785, in the Princeton University Manuscript File; James Manning to Nathan Miller, September 28, 1786, manuscript in the Rhode Island State Archives; James H. Smylie, American Clergymen and the Constitution of the United States of America, 1781-1796 (New Jersey: Princeton Theological Seminary, doctoral dissertation 1958), 127-129, 139, 143.

6 James H. Smylie, American Clergymen and the Constitution of the United States of America, 1781-1796 (New Jersey: Princeton Theological Seminary, doctoral dissertation 1958), 176-181.

7 Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Princeton: American Philosophical Society, 1951), I:474, to Elias Boudinot, “Observations on the Federal Procession in Philadelphia,” July 9, 1788.

8 Gazette of the United States (Washington, DC: May 9, 1789), 1, “Extract from “American Essays, The Importance of the Protestant Religion Politically Considered.”

9 BLS History, Boston Latin School, accessed August 31, 2026, https://www.bls.org/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=206116&type=d.

10 Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England, ed., Nathaniel B. Shurtleff (Boston: William White, 1853), II:203, November 11, 1647. Connecticut followed suit a few years later. See, The Code of 1650, Being a Compilation of the Earliest Laws and Orders of the General Court of Connecticut (Hartford: Silas Andrus, 1822), 92.

11 “An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School” Yale Charter, 1701, Archives at Yale, accessed October 12, 2026, https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/digital_objects/223080; see also, Noah Webster, Letters to a Young Gentleman Commencing His Education (New Haven: Howe & Spalding, 1823), 237.

12 John Maclean, History of the College of New Jersey, from its Origin in 1746 to the Commencement of 1854 (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1877), I:70.

13 The History of the College of William and Mary, from its Foundation, 1660, to 1874 (Richmond: J. W. Randolph & English, 1874), 37-38.

14 “Eleazar Wheelock,” Dartmouth, accessed August 31, 2026, https://president.dartmouth.edu/people/eleazar-wheelock.

15 James Tunstead Burtchaell, “The Decline and Fall of the Christian College I,” First Things, May 1991, 24; Charles B. Galloway, Christianity and the American Commonwealth (Nashville: Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 1898), 198.

16 E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1919), 204.

17 Galloway, Christianity (1898), 209-210.

18 Noah Webster, A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (New York: Webster and Clark, 1843), 293, from his “Reply to a Letter of David McClure on the Subject of the Proper Course of Study in the Girard College,” Philadelphia. New Haven, October 25, 1836.”

19 John Adams, The Works of John Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), III:476, “The Earl of Clarendon to William Pym,” January 20, 1766.

20 Adams, Works, ed. Adams (1850), X:284, to Hezekiah Niles, February 13, 1818; X:271-272, to William Wirt, January 5, 1818.

21 “History of Revivals of Religion, From the Settlement of the Country to the Present Time,” The American Quarterly Register (Boston: Perkins and Marvin, 1833), 5:217.

22 Alpheus Packard, “Nationality,” Bibliotheca Sacra (1856), XIII:193, Article VI.

23 Benjamin F. Morris, Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States (Philadelphia: George W. Childs, 1864), 334.

24 Alice M. Baldwin, The New England Clergy and the American Revolution (Durham: Duke University Press, 1958), 134.

25 Clinton Rossiter, Seedtime of the Republic (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1953), 328-329.

26 Galloway, Christianity and the American Commonwealth (1898), 77.

27 Charles Finney, “The Decay of Conscience,” The [New York] Independent, December 4, 1873, 5.

America’s Black Robe Regiment Part 2

Part 2 – Patriot Preachers

In this, the second in the series on America’s Black Robe Regiment, we will chronicle how Revolutionary American ministers earned this epithet, and why they would become a target of the enemy.

The Black Robe Regiment (or “the black Regiment”) was the slur used by the British to refer to the courageous and patriotic American clergy during the American War for Independence—a backhanded reference to their black clerical robes.¹ Significantly, the British and their Loyalist allies blamed the Black Regiment for American Independence.² For example, General William Howe’s secretary reported:

Among the causes of the present civil war, there is one, which . . . has operated as much as any to the general distraction . . . the circumstance of religion added to the very active and unbecoming part the preachers here of all denominations have taken in these controversies. . . . The war is . . . at the bottom very much a religious war.³

These complaints would often go on to name names and call out the “troublesome,” “rebellious,” and “seditious” outspoken ministers.

Leading To War for Independence

Because American preachers consistently opposed encroachments on civil and religious liberties, when the British imposed the 1765 Stamp Act (an early harbinger of the rupture between the two nations soon to follow), at the vanguard of the opposition to that act were Revs. Andrew Eliot, Charles Chauncey, Samuel Cooper, Jonathan Mayhew, and George Whitefield⁴ (Whitefield even accompanied Benjamin Franklin to Parliament to protest the Act and assert colonial rights⁵). In fact, one of the reasons American resistance to the Stamp Act became so widespread was the “clergy fanned the fire of resistance to the Stamp Act into a strong flame.”⁶

Five years later in 1770 when the British opened fire on their own citizens in the infamous “Boston Massacre,” ministers again stepped to the forefront, boldly denouncing Britain’s abuse of power. Revs. John Lathrop, Charles Chauncey, and Samuel Cooke specifically preached sermons on the subject.⁷ The Massachusetts House of Representatives even ordered that Rev. Cooke’s sermon be printed and distributed.⁸

As tensions with the British continued to grow, ministers such as Rev. George Whitefield and Rev. Timothy Dwight became some of the earliest leaders to defend America’s liberties and advocate separation from Great Britain.⁹

There are many additional examples, but the historical records respecting the leadership of the clergy were so clear that in 1851, distinguished historian Benson Lossing concluded:

The Puritan preachers also promulgated the doctrine of civil liberty, that the sovereign was amenable to the tribunal of public opinion and ought to conform in practice to the expressed will of the majority of the people. By degrees their pulpits became the tribunes of the common people; and. . . . on all occasions, the Puritan ministers were the bold asserters of that freedom which the American Revolution established.¹⁰

Preachers Take Up Arms

Christian minister’s involvement did not stop with rhetoric. They not only taught the principles that led to independence, but they also participated on the battlefield to secure it. One of the numerous examples is Rev. Jonas Clark.

When Paul Revere set off on his famous ride, it was to the home of Rev. Clark in Lexington, Massachusetts that he rode. Patriot leaders John Hancock and Samuel Adams were lodging (as they often did) with Rev. Clark. After learning of the approaching British forces, Hancock and Adams turned to Pastor Clark and inquired whether the local Patriots were ready to fight. Clark unhesitatingly replied, “I have trained them for this very hour!”¹¹ When the original alarm sounded in Lexington to warn of the oncoming British menace, citizens gathered at the town green, and according to early historian Joel Headley:

There they found their pastor the [Rev. Clark] who had arrived before them. The roll was called and a hundred and fifty answered to their names. . . . The church, the pastor, and his congregation thus standing together in the dim light [awaiting the Redcoats], while the stars looked tranquilly down from the sky above them.¹²

The British did not appear at that first alarm, and the people returned home. But following the subsequent alarm and ensuing battle, eighteen Americans lay on Lexington Green.

Eight were dead—seven of them from Rev. Clark’s church.¹³ Headley concluded, “The teachings of the pulpit of Lexington caused the first blow to be struck for American Independence,”¹⁴ and historian James Adams added that “the patriotic preaching of the Reverend Jonas Clark primed those guns.¹⁵

When the British troops left Lexington, they battled Patriots at Concord Bridge and then headed back to Boston, encountering increasing American resistance on their return. Significantly, many who awaited the British along the road were local pastors (such as Rev. Phillips Payson¹⁶ and Rev. Benjamin Balch¹⁷) who had heard of the unprovoked British attack, taken up their own arms, and rallied their congregations to meet the returning British. As word spread wider, pastors from other areas also responded.

When news reached Vermont, Rev. David Avery promptly gathered twenty men and marched toward Boston, recruiting additional troops along the way,¹⁸ and Rev. Stephen Farrar of New Hampshire led 97 of his parishioners to Boston.¹⁹ The ranks of resistance to the British swelled through the efforts of Christian ministers who “were far more effective than army recruiters in rounding up citizen-soldiers.”²⁰

Weeks later when the Americans fought the British at Bunker Hill, American ministers again delved headlong into the fray. When Rev. David Grosvenor heard that the battle had commenced, he left from his pulpit, rifle in hand, and promptly marched to the scene of action,²¹ as did Rev. Jonathan French.²²

This pattern was common through the Revolution, as when Rev. Thomas Reed marched to the defense of Philadelphia against British General Howe;²³ Rev. John Steele of Pennsylvania led American forces in attacking the British;²⁴ Rev. Isaac Lewis helped lead the resistance to the British landing at Norwalk, Connecticut;²⁵ Rev. Joseph Willard raised two full companies and then marched with them to battle;²⁶ when many of his parishioners were drafted, Rev. James Latta joined with them as a common soldier;²⁷ and Rev. William Graham joined the military as a rifleman in order to encourage others in his parish to do the same.²⁸

Furthermore:

Of Rev. John Craighead it is said that “he fought and preached alternately.” Rev. Dr. Cooper was captain of a military company. Rev. John Blair Smith, president of Hampden-Sidney College, was captain of a company that rallied to support the retreating Americans after the battle of Cowpens. Rev. James Hall commanded a company that armed against Cornwallis. Rev. William Graham rallied his own neighbors to dispute the passage of Rockfish Gap with Tarleton and his British dragoons.²⁹

Clergy Targeted by British

No wonder the British dubbed the patriotic American clergy the “Black Regiment.” And because of their strong leadership, the British often targeted ministers. Joel Headley related:

There was a class of clergymen and chaplains in the Revolution whom the British, when they once laid hands on them, treated with the most barbarous severity. Dreading them for the influence they wielded and hating them for the obstinacy, courage, and enthusiasm they infused into the rebels, they violated all the usages of war among civilized nations in order to inflict punishment upon them.³⁰

Among those targeted was the Rev. Naphtali Daggett, President of Yale. When the British approached New Haven to take the town, Daggett offered stiff resistance to the invasion, operating alone on a hillside, where he fired down at the British troops below. Once captured, the British beat him with their musket butts and stabbed him multiple times with their bayonets. Local townspeople lobbied the British and eventually secured the release of the preacher, but Daggett never recovered from those wounds, which caused his death a little over a year later.³¹ When Rev. James Caldwell offered similar resistance in New Jersey, the British burned his church and he and his family were murdered.³²

The British abused, killed, or imprisoned many other clergymen,³³ who often suffered harsher treatment and more severe penalties than did ordinary imprisoned soldiers.³⁴ The British not only targeted the ministers but also their churches. As a result, the British decimated ten of the nineteen church buildings in New York City,³⁵ and most of the churches in Virginia suffered the same fate.³⁶ This pattern was repeated throughout many other parts of the country.

Rev. Naphtali Daggett and Rev. James Caldwell were among the Patriots honored with a statue in Freedom Plaza in Washington, DC for the semiquincentennial celebration during the summer of 2026.

Continue The Series

Discover the many ways that colonial pastors shaped their communities and eventually American independence. (Part 1)
Discover how American pastors invested in their communities and the nation through involvement in government and education. (Part 3)

1 Boston Gazette, December 7, 1772, article by “Israelite,” and Boston Weekly Newsletter, January 11, 1776, article by Peter Oliver, British official; see also Peter Oliver, Peter Oliver’s Origin & Progress of the American Rebellion, eds. Douglas Adair and John A. Schutz (San Marino California: The Huntington Library, 1961), 29, 41-45; Alice M. Baldwin, The New England Clergy and the American Revolution (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1958), 98, 155.

2 See, for example, Ambrose Serle (Secretary to British General William Howe) to William Legge, the second earl of Dartmouth (British secretary of state for the colonies), November 8, 1776, B. F. Stevens, Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives Relating to America 1773-1783 (London, 1895), Vol XXIV; Peter Oliver, Peter Oliver’s Origin & Progress of the American Rebellion, eds. Douglas Adair and John A. Schutz (San Marino California: The Huntington Library, 1961), 41; Simeon Baxter, Tyrannicide Proved Lawful, A Discourse Delivered in the Mines at Simsbury … September 19, 1781 (reprinted London: S. Bladon, 1782); letter of Governor Thomas Hutchinson, to John Pownell, June 8, 1770 reprinted in The Massachusetts Spy (Worcester), August 9, 1775, 4; Thomas Gage, The Correspondence of General Thomas Gage with the Secretaries of State 1763-1775, ed., Clarence E. Carter (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1931), 1:356, letter to Lord Dartmouth, May 30, 1774; 1:374, letter to Dartmouth, September 12, 1774.

3 Ambrose Serle (Secretary to British General William Howe) to William Legge, the second earl of Dartmouth (British secretary of state for the colonies), November 8, 1776, B. F. Stevens, Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives Relating to America 1773-1783 (London, 1895), Vol XXIV;

4 Baldwin, New England Clergy (1958), 90; Stephen Mansfield, Forgotten Founding Father: The Heroic Legacy of George Whitefield (Cumberland House, 2001), 112.

5 Mansfield, Forgotten Founding Father (2001), 112.

6 Alice Baldwin, The Clergy of Connecticut in Revolutionary Days (Yale University Press, 1936), 30.

7 John Lathrop, Innocent Blood Crying to God from the Streets of Boston (London: E. and C. Dilly, 1770); Samuel Cooke, A Sermon Preached at Cambridge in the Audience of His Honor Thomas Hutchinson… May 30, 1770 (Boston: Edes and Gill, 1770); The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles, ed., Franklin B. Dexter (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1901),1: 218, entry, March 18, 1772.

8 Journal of the Honorable House of Representatives of His Majesty’s Province of the Massachusetts-Bay (Botson: Edes and Gill, 1770), May 30, 1770.

9 William Gordon, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment of the Independency of the United States of America (London: 1788), 1:143; Benjamin F. Morris, Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States (Philadelphia: George C. Childs, 1864), 368.

10 Benjamin Lossing, Pictorial Fieldbrook of the Revolution (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1851), I:440.

11 Franklin Cole, They Preached Liberty (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1941), 34.

12 J. T. Headley, The Chaplains and Clergy of the Revolution (New York: Charles Scribner, 1864), 79.

13 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 79-82.

14 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 82.

15 James L. Adams, Yankee Doodle Went to Church: The Righteous Revolution of 1776 (Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1989), 22.

16 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy, 60.

17 G. W. Balch, Some Account of Reverend Benjamin Balch, read at a Metting of this Society, March 13, 1894, Historical Collections of the Danvers Historical Society (1919), VII:88.

18 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy, 289-292.

19 Charles H. Chandler, The History of New Ipswich, New Hampshire, 1735-1914 (Fitchburg, MA: Sentinel Printing Company, 1914), 74-76.

20 Adams, Yankee Doodle (1989), 153.

21 William Brigham, An Address Delivered Before the Inhabitants of Grafton on the First Centennial Anniversary of that Town, April 29, 1835 (Boston: Light & Horton, 1835), 29.

22 Sarah L. Bailey, Historical Sketches of Andover (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1880), 453-454.

23 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 68.

24 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 69.

25 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 71-72.

26 Christopher Thayer, An Address Delivered in the First Parish, Beverly, October 2, 1867 (Boston: Nichols and Noyes, 1868), 54.

27 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 72.

28 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 69.

29 Daniel Dorchester, Christianity in the United States from the First Settlement Down to the Present Time (New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1888), 265.

30 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 58.

31 William B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit or Commemorative Notices of Distinguished American Clergymen of Various Denominations (New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 1859), I:481-482, letter from Elizur Goodrich, October 16, 1849, as it was dictated to him by his father, Chauncey A. Goodrich, an eyewitness and participant.

32 B. F. Morris, Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States (Philadelphia: George W. Childs, 1864), 350.

33 Dorchester, Christianity in the United States (1888), 265.

34 Headley, Chaplains and Clergy (1864), 58.

35 Dorchester, Christianity in the United States (1888), 266.

36 Francis L. Hawks, Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States of America (New York: Harper & Brothers,1836), 1:153-154.

America’s Black Robe Regiment Part 1

For our first two centuries, Americans recognized and appreciated the indispensable role of ministers of the Gospel in securing both our civil and religious liberties. But in recent years, American culture has sequestered and sidelined her pastors. The universal church and her leaders were pushed out of the public square and told to stay in their own lane.

America owes much to the fact that historically, the church has done just the opposite. The following articles examine some of the ways in which the people of God and the pulpits were instrumental in securing freedom for this country making America the standard for liberty around the World.

Part 1 Colonial Clergy

Clergy Establish American Colonies

The early settlers who arrived in Virginia beginning in 1606 included ministers such as Revs. Robert Hunt, Richard Buck, William Mease, Alexander Whitaker, and William Wickham. In 1619 these and others helped form America’s first representative government: the Virginia House of Burgesses, with its members elected from among the people.¹ That legislature met in the Jamestown church and was opened with prayer by Rev. Bucke; the elected legislators then sat in the church choir loft to conduct legislative business.² As Bishop Galloway later observed:

The first movement toward democracy in America was inaugurated in the house of God and with the blessing of the minister of God.³

In 1620, the Pilgrims began to establish their colony in Plymouth. Their pastor, John Robinson, charged them to elect civil leaders who would not only seek the “common good,” but who would also eliminate special privileges and status between governors and the governed,⁴ a radical departure from the practice in the rest of the world at that time. The Pilgrims eagerly took that message to heart, organizing a representative government and holding annual elections.⁵ By 1636, they had also enacted a citizens’ Bill of Rights—America’s first.⁶

In 1630, the Puritans founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and under the leadership of their ministers, they, too, established representative government with annual elections.⁷ By 1641, they also had established a Bill of Rights (the “Body of Liberties”), a document of individual rights drafted by Rev. Nathaniel Ward.⁸

Seeking freedom of conscience, Rev. Roger Williams left the Massachusetts Bay Colony and established one farther south, the Rhode Island Colony. Its representative form of government⁹ ensured that “the sovereign power of all civil authority is founded in the consent of the people.”¹⁰

The same year, Rev. Thomas Hooker (along with Revs. Samuel Stone, John Davenport, and Theophilus Eaton) founded Connecticut. They not only established an elective form of government,¹¹ but in a 1638 sermon based on Deuteronomy 1:13 and Exodus 18:21, Rev. Hooker explained the three Biblical principles that had guided the plan of government in Connecticut:

The choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God’s own allowance.
The privilege of election… belongs to the people…
They who have power to appoint officers and magistrates [i.e., the people], it is in their power also to set the bounds and limitations of the power and place.¹²

Colonial Charters & Constitutions

From Rev. Hooker’s teachings and leadership sprang the “Fundamental Orders of Connecticut,” America’s first written constitution (and the direct antecedent of the federal Constitution).¹³ While it was America’s first written constitution, it was certainly not America’s first written document of governance. Such written documents had been the norm for every colony founded by biblically minded Christians. After all, that was the Scriptural model. God gave Moses a fixed written law to govern the nation of Israel (c.f., Deuteronomy 17:18-20, 31:24-26, II Chronicles 34:15-21, etc.). Renowned Cornell University professor Clinton Rossiter observed:

The Bible gave a healthy spur to the belief in a written constitution. The Mosaic Code, too, was a higher law that men could live by, and appeal to, against the decrees and whims of ordinary men.¹⁴

Written documents of governance placed direct limitations on government and gave citizens maximum protection against the rapacious whims of all-too-human leaders. This practice of providing written documents was the practice of American ministers before the Rev. Hooker’s constitution of 1638 and continued long after.

For example, New Jersey was chartered in 1676 and then divided into two religious sub-colonies: Puritan East Jersey and Quaker West Jersey. Each maintained a representative government with annual elections.¹⁵ Minister William Penn wrote the governing document for West Jersey. He explained:

We lay a foundation for after ages to understand their liberty… that they may not be brought in bondage but by their own consent, for we put the power in the people.¹⁶

Under Penn’s document:

Legislation was vested in a single assembly elected by all the inhabitants; the elections were to be by secret ballot; the principle of “No taxation without representation” was clearly asserted; freedom of conscience, trial by jury, and immunity from arrest without warrant were guaranteed.¹⁷

In 1681, Penn wrote the Frame of Government for Pennsylvania. It, too, established annual elections and provided numerous guarantees for citizen rights.¹⁸

Ministers Help Secure Liberties

There are many additional examples, but it is indisputable that ministers played a critical role in instituting and securing America’s most significant civil rights and freedoms. Founding Father Noah Webster explained:

The learned clergy . . . had great influence in founding the first genuine republican governments ever formed and which, with all the faults and defects of the men and their laws, were the best republican governments on earth. At this moment, the people of this country are indebted chiefly to their institutions for the rights and privileges which are enjoyed.¹⁹

Daniel Webster (the great “Defender of the Constitution”) agreed:

To the free and universal reading of the Bible in that age, men were much indebted for right views of civil liberty.²⁰

Because Christian ministers established in America freedoms and opportunities not generally available even in the mother country of Great Britain, they were also at the forefront of resisting encroachments on the civil and religious liberties that they had helped secure.

For example, when crown-appointed Governor Edmund Andros tried to seize the charters of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, revoke their representative governments, and force the establishment of the British Anglican Church upon them, opposition to Andros’ plan was led by Revs. Samuel Willard, Increase Mather, and especially Rev. John Wise.²¹ Governor Andros even imprisoned Rev. Wise for his resistance. Nevertheless, he remained an unflinching voice for freedom, penning two works in 1710 and 1717 forcefully asserting that democracy was God’s ordained government in both Church and State.²² An historian has since titled him “The Founder of American Democracy.”²³

And when Governor Berkley refused to recognize Virginia’s self-government, Quaker minister William Edmundson and Rev. Thomas Harrison led the opposition.²⁴ When Governor Thomas Hutchinson ignored the elected Massachusetts legislature, Rev. Dr. Samuel Cooper led the opposition.²⁵

Reverend Wise, Founder of American Democracy

In the future, Christian ministers would provide courageous leadership throughout the War for Independence, but not before they were largely responsible for laying its intellectual foundation. To understand more of their influence, consider Rev. John Wise.

As early as 1687, the Rev. Wise was already teaching that “taxation without representation is tyranny,”²⁶ the “consent of the governed” was the foundation of government,²⁷ and that “every man must be acknowledged equal to every man.”²⁸ In 1772 with the Revolution on the horizon, the Sons of Liberty reprinted two of Wise’s works to refresh Americans’ understanding of the core Biblical principles of government.²⁹ (The first printing sold so fast that a second reprint was quickly issued.³⁰) Significantly, many of the specific points made by Wise in those works subsequently appeared four years later in the very language of the Declaration of Independence. Historian Benjamin Morris observed in 1864:

Some of the most glittering sentences in the immortal Declaration of Independence are almost literal quotations from this [1772 reprinted] essay of John Wise. . . . It was used as a political textbook in the great struggle for freedom.³¹

Twentieth century historian, Duke University’s Alice Baldwin concurred:

There is not a right asserted in the Declaration of Independence which had not been discussed by the New England clergy before 1763.³²

And President Calvin Coolidge in a 1926 speech in Philadelphia on the 150th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, similarly acknowledged:

The thoughts [in the Declaration] can very largely be traced back to what John Wise was writing in 1710.³³

It was Christian ministers such as John Wise (and scores like him) who, through their writings, Election Sermons, and other sermons on the Biblical principles of government, laid the intellectual basis for American Independence.

Continue The Series

Discover how American ministers not only laid the foundation for American Independence, but also put their lives on the line to secure it. (Part 2)
Discover how American pastors invested in their communities and the nation through involvement in government and education. (Part 3)

Image credits: banner image: Rev. John Wise – Saul Levine, Ipswich Tax Resistance—1687 (1941), Ipswich, Massachusetts, post office; image used with the permission of the United States Postal Service®. All rights reserved. Roger Williams – From The New York Public Library, The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/9f8d7d60-c608-012f-972a-58d385a7bc34.

1 Charles E. Hatch, America’s Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses (Washington: National Park Service Interpretive Series History No. 2, 1956), 4.

2 Charles B. Galloway, Christianity and the American Commonwealth (Nashville: Publishing House Methodist Episcopal Church South, 1898), 112-114; John Fiske, Civil Government in the United States Considered with some Reference to Its Origins (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890), 152.

3 Galloway, Christianity (1898), 114.

4 John Robinson’s Farewell Letter, July 1620, William Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation, ed., Charles Deane (Boston: 1856), 64-67.

5 Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England, ed., David Pulsifer (Boston: William White, 1861), 10, Orders agreed on a several times of the General Good of the Colony and the Better Government and preservation of the same, Part 1; see also, Christopher Fennell, “Plymouth Colony Legal Structure,” Plymouth Colony Archive Project, 1998, http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html;

6 The Compact with the Charter and Laws of the Colony of New Plymouth, ed., William Brigham (Boston: Dutton and Wentworth, 1836), 36-42, November 15, 1636 “Code of 1636”; see also, George L. Haskins, “The Legal Heritage of Plymouth Colony,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 110, No. 6 (1962), 849, 854-855.

7 Henry William Elson, History of the United States of America (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1904), 105-108.

8 William H. Whitmore, A Bibliographical Sketch of the Laws of the Massachusetts Colony from 1630-1686 (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1890), 7-8, 32-61, A Copy of the Liberties of the Massachusetts Colony in New England.

9 Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, July 15, 1663, “Rhode Island’s Royal Charter, Rhode Island Department of State, accessed July 29, 2026, https://www.sos.ri.gov/divisions/civics-and-education/for-educators/themed-collections/rhode-island-charter.

10 Roger Williams, The Bloody Tenet of Persecution for Cause of the Conscience Discussed in a Conference between Truth and Peace (1644), Chapter LXXIX, 114.

11 The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, ed. Francis Newton Thorpe (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1909), 1:534, Charter of Connecticut, 1662.

12 Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society (Hartford: Published for the Society, 1860), 1:20, sermon by Thomas Hooker, May 31, 1638, notes recorded by Henry Wolcott, Jr.

13 John Fiske, The Beginnings of New England (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1898), 127-128.

14 Clinton L. Rossiter, Seedtime of the Republic (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1953), 32; see also, J. M. Mathews, The Bible and Civil Government, in a Course of Lectures (New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 1851), 67-68.

15 Aaron Leaming and Jacob Spicer, The Grants and Concessions and Original Constitutions of the Province of New Jersey (Philadelphia: William Bradford, Second Edition, 1881), 423, Province of West New Jersey in America, November 25, 1681, Art. I; and 154-155, The Fundamental Constitutions for the Province of East New Jersey in America, Anno Domini 1683, Art. II-III.

16 William Penn, The Papers of William Penn (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 1:416, to Richard Hartshorne, August 26, 1676.

17 Ernest Sutherland Bates, American Faith (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1940), 187.

18 Pennsylvania Charter to William Penn – March 4, 1681, Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, accessed July 29, 2026, https://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/documents/1681-1776/pennsylvania-charter.html.

19 Noah Webster, Letters of Noah Webster, ed. Harry R. Warfel (New York: Library Publishers, 1953), 455, to David McClure, October 25, 1836.

20 Daniel Webster, Address Delivered at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1843, on the Completion of the Monument (Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1843), 31.

21 Fiske, Beginnings of New England (1898), 267-272.

22 John Wise, The Churches Quarrel Espoused (Boston: John Boyles, 1772), 9; and A Vindication of the Government of New- England Churches (Boston: John Boyles, 1772), 46.

23 J. M. MacKaye, “The Founder of American Democracy,” The New England Magazine (September 1903), XXIX:1:73-83.

24 John Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, and Company, 1901), I:306, 311 & II:57.

25 William H. Sumner, A History of East Boston (Boston: J. E. Tilton and Company, 1858), 267, 364-365.

26 David Otis Mears, Oberlin Lectures of 1829: The Pulpit and the Pews (Oberlin: Edward G. Goodrich, 1892), 87.

27 John Wise, A Vindication (Boston: J. Allen, 1717, reprinted: Gainesville, FL: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1958), 7.

28 Wise, A Vindication of the Government (1717), 39.

29 Wise, A Vindication of the Government (1772); John Wise, Churches Quarrel Espoused (Boston: John Boyles, 1772).

30 Claude H. Van Tyne, The Causes of the War of Independence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1922), I:357.

31 Benjamin F. Morris, Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States: Developed in the Official and Historical Annals of the Republic (Philadelphia: G.W. Childs, 1864), 341.

32 Alice M. Baldwin, The New England Clergy and the American Revolution (Durham: Duke University Press, 1928), 170.

33 Calvin Coolidge: “Address at the Celebration of the 150th Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” July 5, 1926, The American Presidency Project, accessed May 25, 2020.

Sermon – Unlimited Submission 1750

In 1750, Congregationalist minister Jonathan Mayhew (1720-1766) preached the sermon Concerning Unlimited Submission reminding his listeners, and then its readers once the sermon was published, that rebellion against tyrants could be both Biblical and just. His sermon helped form the basis of an early motto of the American Revolution: “Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God,”¹ which also became Thomas Jefferson’s personal motto.²

John Adams later recognized Mayhew as one of the individuals “most conspicuous, the most ardent, and influential” in the “awakening and revival of American principles and feelings” that led to our independence.³

Jonathan Mayhew, A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Powers. Boston: D. Fowle, 1750.

See the printed sermon

Read the transcript

Endnotes

¹ John Adams, Letters of John Adams, Addressed to His Wife, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1841), 1:152, to Abigail Adams on August 14, 1776.
² Jefferson attributed the phrase to Benjamin Franklin. Henry S. Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Derby & Jackson, 1858), 3:393, 487.
³ John Adams, Novanglus and Massachusettensis: or Political Essays Published in the year 1774 and 1775 (Boston: Hews & Goss, 1819), 235 [Shaw #46923].

America’s 250th Anniversary Resources for the Whole Family

This year we have a unique and extraordinary opportunity to explore our American story. And there are a wealth of educational resources available to your family. Immerse yourself in all things patriotic and historical with the following offerings from like-minded organizations and even initiatives from our federal government. Through these materials and opportunities, you will come to better appreciate the many blessings we enjoy!

Events

As part of the Freedom 250 Network, WallBuilders is excited to share some of these once-in-a-lifetime opportunities for your family. Be sure to see the list of all the Freedom 250 events here.

America Prays— White House
The White House invites you to pray for our country. Come May 17th for a day of worship on the National Mall (in person or via stream). And join thousands of your neighbors in praying 10 minutes a week through July 4. Usher in our next 250 years as One Nation Under God.

Freedom Truck Mobile Museums— PragerU / Hillsdale College
Six mobile museums, known as “Freedom Trucks,” are crisscrossing the country bringing the story of American independence to a city near you. Enjoy interactive and inspiring content for visitors of all ages, and artifacts from our very own American Journey Experience. See official dates and locations here.

Freedom Plane National Tour— National Archives
Since the entire nation can’t all visit Washington DC this year, the National Archives is coming to you, allowing a unique glimpse at rare documents fundamental to America’s founding. See the website for tour dates and locations.

Educational Media

The Story of America video series — Hillsdale College
This captivating series explores elements of America’s founding from the “shot heard around the world” to the last signature on the Declaration of Independence. Narrators include J.D. Vance, Pete Hegseth, Michael Knowles, Brian Kilmeade, and many more.

The Founders Museum — White House
Hear the Founders’ stories in their own words. Watch the Signers of Declaration, America’s Founding Fathers, Ladies of the Revolution, and Events that Paved the Way for Independence come to life.

The Unsung Heroes of the Revolution — PragerU
In another of PragerU’s popular 5-minute video series, Eric Metaxas shares the lives and legacies of individuals who were key in securing America’s freedom. While you’re at it, check out their other educational series including US History, Colonial America, or their free course on America’s Founding Fathers.

The American Story — Glenn Beck
Inspired by the book series of the same title by David and Tim Barton, these dramatized episodes bring American history to life as you listen. Great for auditory learners who would never make it through a history book. New episodes drop weekly.

For Kids

Inspire your youngsters with creative activities especially released for this commemoration. Now is a great time to find patriotic coloring books, a giant coloring tablecloth for your kitchen table, games, and puzzles. Collect the commorative Semiquincentennial coins offered by the US Mint.

Star Spangled Adventures — Real Life Network
When screen time is absolutely necessary for the littles, these short adventures are the way to go. Introduce your young patriots to heroes such as John and Abigail Adams , or follow Washington as he crossed the Delaware River. Witness adventures from Columbus’ search for the new world to the Wright Brothers mastering flight.

Happy Birthday America Booklet— Real Life Network
This faith-centered booklet helps children discover America’s story through freedom, courage, and God’s providence. Through highlighting individuals who contributed to America’s story, kids realize they are never too young to participate and serve. This little guide helps kids appreciate the heritage and freedom they enjoy. Bonus: it is packed with applicable Scripture verses that are easy for kids to memorize.

America 250 Unit Study – Master Books
This six-week course will help your kids understand and appreciate the freedoms we celebrate. The curriculum focuses on the Biblical responsibilities of citizens, and includes history, civics, literature, geography, Scripture memory, and activities like timelines, crafts, and recipes. Your student will understand that true freedom found in the Gospel. It’s written for middle and high school students but includes project options for youngsters as well. Start now to finish by July 4^th!

Travel

Washington DC Guide App — Lost Tours
Taking your family to Washington DC this year? Bring along a helpful historian in your pocket. Enjoy commentary from knowledgeable historians such as David Barton and William Federer as they tell the stories of sites as you visit. More American landmarks and cities coming soon!

The Heritage Guide to Historical Sites — The Heritage Foundation
Use this interactive map to help plan your next family vacation around some of America’s most treasured historical sites including battlefields, presidents’ homes, monuments, and museums. Each site is rated for historical accuracy, ideological bias, and family content. This is the travel tool we’ve all been waiting for!

From 250^th Commemorative Passports to highlighting battlefields of the American Revolution, Federal agencies like the Department of Transportation and the National Park Service have joined in the spirit of the celebration by offering some wonderful educational ideas for your family. Don’t forget to check their websites when you plan your family vacation.

Thomas Jefferson Quiz

Declaration Hub

Introduction

The Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, serves as America’s birth certificate and one of the most important documents in human history. It announced the separation of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain and stated the key principles on which the new nation would be founded.

As Thomas Jefferson wrote in its famous preamble:

When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.

These words justified the colonies’ break from tyranny and expressed a vision of government that is delegated its just powers by the consent of the governed. This was a groundbreaking idea based on the recognition of God-given rights.

The fifty-six signers of the Declaration pledged their lives, fortunes, and sacred honor to this cause.

Some History

Growing tensions between the American colonies and Britain led to the push for independence. Oppressive taxes, the Intolerable Acts, and limits on colonial freedoms fueled anger. In January 1776, Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense inspired many colonists to support breaking away from Britain.¹

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed a resolution in the Continental Congress, stating that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.”² Congress then chose a Committee of Five—Thomas Jefferson (the primary author), John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston—to write a formal declaration.³

After intense debate and revisions (including the removal of a passage condemning the slave trade to secure unity⁴), Congress adopted the document. John Dunlap printed broadsides that night, spreading the news across the colonies.⁵

John Adams, writing to his wife Abigail on July 3, 1776, foresaw the day’s enduring legacy:

The Second Day of July 1776 will be the most memorable epoch in the History of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival… It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires, and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.⁶

Although Adams anticipated celebrations on July 2 (the day the independence vote was held), history has adopted July 4 as Independence Day—the day the world was informed why America chose freedom.

The signers knew the risks: by declaring independence, they committed an act of treason against the British Crown, punishable by death. Yet, as Adams reflected, “posterity will triumph in that day’s transaction.”⁷

This hub explores the Declaration’s text, its courageous signers (including original documents and letters from several), and valuable resources for further study.

Timeline

June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee proposes independence.
June 11, 1776 Committee of Five appointed to draft the Declaration.
June 28, 1776 Draft presented to Congress.
July 2, 1776 Congress votes for independence (12 colonies in favor; New York abstains initially).
July 4, 1776 Declaration adopted and approved.
August 2, 1776 Most delegates sign the engrossed parchment copy.

The Text of the Declaration

The Declaration of Independence is remarkably concise—containing fewer than 1,400 words—yet it powerfully combines a philosophical defense of liberty with a detailed indictment of King George III’s abuses. The document is structured in four main parts:

The Preamble: States the necessity of explaining separation and introduces the famous self-evident truths.
A Statement of Rights and Principles: Outlines the purpose of government and the people’s right to alter or abolish it when it becomes destructive.
The List of Grievances: Presents 27 specific charges against the King.
The Resolution of Independence: Formally declares the colonies free and independent states.

These primary sources allow you to read the Declaration exactly as the Founders wrote, edited, and presented it to the world.

Primary Sources

Read the Full Text

Declaration Rough Draft & Early Printings

Jefferson’s Rough Draft | View Thomas Jefferson’s original draft with handwritten edits by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin
High-resolution images of the engrossed parchment | Signed by most delegates on August 2, 1776
The Dunlap Broadside | Printed overnight on July 4–5, 1776 and distributed throughout the colonies

Signers of the Declaration

The fifty-six men who signed the Declaration of Independence were not mythical figures—they were husbands, fathers, merchants, lawyers, farmers, and ministers who knowingly risked everything for the cause of liberty. By affixing their names to the document, they committed an act of treason against the British Crown, fully aware that failure could mean ruin or death. Yet they declared, in the document’s closing words, that “for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.”

Many of these signers paid a heavy personal price: homes destroyed, families displaced, fortunes lost, and some imprisoned or hunted by British forces.⁸ Their courage and sacrifice laid the foundation for the nation we enjoy today.

WallBuilders is privileged to preserve and present original letters, documents, and artifacts from several of these brave patriots, offering a rare glimpse into their faith, character, and commitment. Below are highlighted resources featuring some of the signers and their stories.

Resources

Handwritten Documents

About the Signers

Articles about Independence Day

Additional Helpful Resources

Explore the Declaration of Independence further through these trusted primary sources and educational tools. These resources provide everything from original manuscripts and images to classroom-ready materials, helping readers of all ages deepen their understanding of America’s founding document and the courageous men who signed it.

Additional Resources

Primary Sources and Official Sites

National Archives
National Archives: The Signers’ Gallery
National Archives: Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Founders Online (National Archives) | Searchable letters and papers of Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, and other key figures
Library of Congress: Creating the United States | Interactive exhibit on the Declaration’s drafting and context
National Park Service: The Declaration of Independence
Architect of the Capitol: Declaration of Independence Painting
- Architect of the Capitol: Key to the Declaration of Independence Painting
Journals of the Continental Congress (1774–1789) | Full proceedings leading to independence

Educational and Classroom Resources

National Archives DocsTeach | Ready-to-use activities and primary-source sets on the Declaration
Library of Congress Teacher Resources | Lesson plans and primary-source analysis tools
Bill of Rights Institute | Free lessons and document-based questions

Declaration Signers Biographies

John Sanderson, Biography of the Signers, 9 vols
Lives of the Signers  (WallBuilders Historical Reprint)
Wives of the Signers  (WallBuilders Historical Reprint)

Additional Resources & Videos

Endnotes

¹ Thomas Paine, Common Sense: Addressed to the Inhabitants of America (Philadelphia: 1776).
² Richard Henry Lee’s handwritten resolution from the National Archives: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/lee-resolution. See also, June 7, 1776, Journals of the American Congress: From 1774 to 1788 (Washington: Way and Gideon, 1823), 1:368.
³ June 11, 1776, Journals of the American Congress (1823), I:369.
⁴ “Thomas Jefferson, June 1776, Rough Draft of the Declaration of Independence,” Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtjx.mtjbib000156/?st=gallery.
⁵ “Dunlap Broadside [Declaration of Independence],” July 4, 1776, National Archives, https://catalog.archives.gov/id/301682.
⁶ John Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760703jasecond.
⁷ John Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760703jasecond.
⁸ “FAQ: Difficulties and Sacrifices of the Declaration Signers,” WallBuilders, https://wallbuilders.com/resource/faq-difficulties-and-sacrifices-of-the-declaration-signers/.

America Reads the Bible!

Just as Ezra read the Word aloud to the people of Israel (Nehemiah 8:1–3), awakening revival and repentance, inspiring them to rebuild the temple, and working with Nehemiah to mobilize the people to rebuild Jerusalem’s walls, America Reads the Bible is a sacred opportunity to call our nation back to its spiritual foundations. Through a public, continuous reading of the entire Bible in our nation’s capital by our national leaders from all spheres of influence, we believe God can spark revival in individual hearts and inspire Americans to carry the Word forward in their lives and communities into the next 250 years of our national story.

April 18-25, 2026 in Washington, D.C.

Join a historic, week-long, continuous Bible-reading — reigniting America’s spiritual foundation as we celebrate 250 years of freedom!

Discipleship Resources from WallBuilders

Worth Riding a Hundred Miles to Hear – Psalm 35
The Ten Commandments: The Basis for a Free and Civilized Society – Deuteronomy 5
The Revelatory Source for the Constitutional Separation of Powers – Jeremiah 17:9
Calling the Nation to Prayer and Fasting – Ezra 8
The Heart of a Grateful Nation – II Chronicles 5-7
His Desire to Answer Prayer – Matthew 6
Meditating on God’s Word – Psalm 4:4
What Good Can I Do This Day? – Acts 10:38
The Duty of Nations – Psalm 9:17
Righteousness Exalts a Nation – Proverbs 14:34
Stepping Stones – I Chronicles 17:11-12
The Rock Upon Which Our Republic Rests – II Kings 23

Devotional articles taken from from The Founders’ Bible available from WallBuilders.

Join the Movement

The Ten Commandments: The Basis for a Free and Civilized Society

Thoughts on Deuteronomy 5

It is difficult to argue that any single work has had a greater or more far-reaching impact through four centuries of American life, law, and culture than the Ten Commandments. As such, the fact that their public display would become a matter of current debate or prohibition is almost unthinkable. And yet it is.

The Ten Commandments are the embodiment of the Moral Law (one of the four types of law in the Bible) and formed the foundation for general morals in America as encompassed in the Common Law. Their repetition here in Deuteronomy 5 provides an opportunity to demonstrate that they were also the impetus for specific American statutory laws.

The original delivery of the commandments in Exodus was to the children of Israel immediately after God had delivered them from Egypt and established them as an independent nation. Now they are being repeated to the younger generation, some forty years later, as they are preparing to finally enter the Promised Land. After suffering the delay and the pain of watching their parents perish in the wilderness because of their continual disobedience and refusal to enter (Numbers 14:29), Moses is renewing the covenant with them. The Ten Commandments are not mere dictates of obligation; they are lifegiving promises that if adhered to would bring blessing and prosperity. God promised that it would go well with them, and they would prolong their days in the land that they were about to possess.

Such promise was not lost upon our Founding Fathers who openly endorsed the application of the Ten Commandments to civil law in America. statesman John Quincy Adams declared:

The law given from Sinai was a civil and municipal as well as a moral and religious code; it contained many statutes . . . of universal application—laws essential to the existence of men in society, and most of which have been enacted by every nation which ever professed any code of laws.¹

Founder and educator Noah Webster agreed:

Where will you find any code of laws among civilized men in which the commands and prohibitions are not founded on Christian principles? I need not specify the prohibition of murder, robbery, theft, trespass.²

These laws are essential to the existence of men in society, and yet some critics today object to displaying the Commandments on such spurious grounds that there are too many versions—that the Lutherans have a version, as do the Jewish, Catholic, and Orthodox faiths; and that the Protestants have several different versions.³ They thus argue that with so many different versions, public displays of any of them will always invoke a “deep theological dispute” and therefore should be avoided.⁴ But this claim is ridiculous.

What distinguishes the various “versions” are primarily the different ways in which they are numbered. In the original Hebrew text, the Ten Commandments appear in paragraph form, with no numbers or verses; but as they were translated into subsequent texts, various faiths and branches of Christianity chose to number them differently. For example, the first command in the Jewish version is usually the prologue in most Protestant versions; but both contain the same content. The different numberings are merely superficial manmade contrivances for ease of identification, but all versions cover the same subject matter.

Yet no matter how the commandments are numbered, each finds direct application in American laws. A few examples (chosen from dozens of similar ones) are presented below.

1. Have No Other Gods.

This command was directly incorporated into the first written code of laws enacted in America: those of the Virginia Colony in 1610.⁵ The subsequent Massachusetts legal code of 1641 and that of Connecticut in 1642 similarly declared:

If any man after legal conviction shall have or worship any other god but the Lord God, he shall be put to death. Deut. 13.6, 10, Deut. 17.2, 6, Ex. 22.20.⁶

2. Have No Idols.

Typical of the civil laws on this command was a 1680 New Hampshire law declaring:

Idolatry. It is enacted by ye Assembly and ye authority thereof, yet if any person having had the knowledge of the true God openly and manifestly have or worship any other god but the Lord God, he shall be put to death. Ex. 22.20, Deut. 13.6 and 10.⁷

Note: reading such early statutes and the ones that follow can give the impression that the death penalty was freely applied to almost any crime in America, but such was definitely not the case. This fact becomes apparent when comparing American laws with European laws from the same period. As noted by early American historian Daniel Dorchester:

When the Mayflower left England [in 1620], thirty-one offenses were punishable with death in the mother country. By the middle of that century, the black list had enlarged to 223, of which 176 were without the benefit of the clergy [there were no exceptions]. How far in advance the New England colonies were is evident from the fact that not a single colony code recognized more than fifteen capital crimes.⁸

That might still strike us as severe, but when understood in context, realize that having a copy of the Scriptures for themselves, in their own language, to study and learn what God was like as revealed in His Word was a relatively new development. Prior to this it was rare and sometimes even illegal for an individual to possess a Bible. The populace could then be kept ignorant and easily controlled by those in power who regularly committed horrible atrocities in God’s Name. Given that, it is quite remarkable just how quickly these early forefathers began to learn for themselves that God was not like those who had misrepresented Him for their own aims. (For a more complete discussion of this subject, please see the commentary for Psalm 119:11 in The Founders’ Bible.)

3. Honor God’s Name.

Civil laws based on this commandment were divided into two categories: (1) laws prohibiting swearing and profanity, and (2) laws prohibiting blasphemy. Noah Webster confirmed that both were derived from this commandment:

When in obedience to the Third Commandment of the Decalogue you would avoid profane swearing, you are to remember that this alone is not a full compliance with the prohibition which comprehends all irreverent words or actions and whatever tends to cast contempt on the Supreme Being or on His Word and ordinances [i.e., blasphemy].⁹

Numerous statutory laws were enacted as a result of the Third Command.¹⁰

4. Honor the Sabbath Day.

From the beginning, every American colony enacted civil laws to honor the Sabbath.¹¹ That legal recognition continued over subsequent centuries. For example, during the American Revolution, Commander-in-Chief George Washington issued numerous military orders directing that his troops observe the Sabbath:

The Commander in Chief directs that Divine service be performed every Sunday at 11 o’clock. . . . It is expected that officers of all ranks will by their attendance set an example to their men.¹²

Following the Revolution, the states continued to honor the Sabbath. For example, Vermont enacted a ten-part Sabbath law in 1787;¹³ Massachusetts enacted an eleven-part law in 1791;¹⁴ Virginia enacted an extensive eight-part law (written by Thomas Jefferson) in 1792;¹⁵ New Jersey enacted a twenty-one-part law in 1798;¹⁶ New Hampshire enacted a fourteen-part law in 1799;¹⁷ Maine enacted a thirteen-part law in 1821;¹⁸ and other states did the same.¹⁹

When the U.S. Constitution was written in 1787, it, too, honored the traditional Christian Sabbath. Article I, Section 7, ¶ 2, stipulates that the president has ten days to sign a law, “Sundays excepted.” This “Sundays Excepted” clause had previously appeared in the state constitutions, and so the historical understanding of this clause at both the state and federal levels was summarized by numerous courts, including the 1912 Supreme Court of Missouri:

It is provided that if the Governor does not return a bill within 10 days (Sundays excepted). . . . Can any impartial mind deny that it contains a recognition of the Lord’s Day as a day exempted by law from all worldly pursuits? The framers of the Constitution, then, recognized Sunday as a day to be observed, acting themselves under a law which exacted a compulsive observance of it. . . . Sunday was recognized as a day of rest.²⁰

Other courts were equally candid about Sabbath laws and their relation to the Ten Commandments. For example, in 1950, the Supreme Court of Mississippi affirmed:

The Sunday laws have a Divine origin. . . . After the six days of creation, the Creator Himself rested on the seventh. Genesis, Chapter 2, verses 2 and 3. Thus, the Sabbath was instituted as a day of rest. The original example was later confirmed as a commandment when the law was handed down from Mt. Sinai: “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy” [Exodus 20:8].²¹

In 1967, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania similarly declared:

“Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy; six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work; but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God. In it thou shalt not do any work” [Deuteronomy 5:12-14]. This Divine pronouncement became part of the Common Law inherited by the thirteen American colonies and by the sovereign states of the American union.²²

The modern U.S. Supreme Court asserts that even to this day, states have the right to enact laws honoring the Sabbath.²³

5. Honor Your Parents.

A 1642 Connecticut law specifically cited the Decalogue as the basis for its civil laws related to honoring parents:

If any child or children above sixteen years old and of sufficient understanding shall curse or smite their normal father or mother, he or they shall be put to death unless it can be sufficiently testified that the parents have been very unChristianly negligent in the education of such children, or so provoke them by extreme and cruel correction that they have been forced thereunto to preserve themselves from death

[or]

maiming. Ex. 21:17, Lev. 20, Ex. 20:15.²⁴

Three centuries later, a 1934 Louisiana appeals court affirmed the continuing influence of the Fifth Command on civil laws:

“Honor thy father and thy mother” is as much a command of the municipal law as it is a part of the Decalogue, regarded as holy by every Christian people. “A child,” says the code, “whatever be his age, owes honor and respect to his father and mother.”²⁵

6. Do not murder.

A 1641 Massachusetts law declared:

Ex. 21.12, Numb. 35.13, 14, 30, 31. If any person commit any willful murder, which is manslaughter committed upon premeditated malice, hatred, or cruelty not in a man’s necessary and just defense, nor by mere casualty against his will, he shall be put to death. Ex. 21.14. If any person shall slay another through guile, either by poisoning or other such devilish practice, he shall be put to death.²⁶

Similar provisions derived from the prohibition in the Ten Commandments can be found in the laws of the early colonies and subsequently of the independent states—laws spanning the centuries. Consequently, courts have been very candid in acknowledging the Decalogue as the origin of American civil murder laws, such as when a 1932 Kentucky appeals court asserted:

Following the promulgation of Moses at Mt. Sinai has required of each and every one of its citizens that “Thou shalt not murder” [Exodus 20:13]. If that law is violated, the one guilty of it has no right to demand more than a fair trial, and if, as a result thereof, the severest punishment for the crime is visited upon him, he has no one to blame but himself.²⁷

7. Do not commit adultery.

Directly citing the Decalogue, a 1641 Massachusetts law declared:

If any person committeth adultery with a married or espoused wife, the adulterer and adulteress shall surely be put to death. Ex. 20.14.²⁸

For three centuries, colonies and states based their adultery policies on the Decalogue. For example, a 1787 Vermont law stated:

Whereas the violation of the marriage covenant is contrary to the command of God [Exodus 20:14] and destructive to the peace of families: be it therefore enacted by the general assembly of the State of Vermont that if any man be found in bed with another man’s wife, or woman with another’s husband, . . . &c.²⁹

In 1898, the highest criminal court in Texas declared:

“Thou shalt not commit adultery” is our law as well as the law of the Bible.³⁰

And in 1955, the Washington Supreme Court likewise ruled:

Adultery, whether promiscuous or not, violates one of the Ten Commandments and the statutes of this state.³¹

8. Do Not Steal.

Early colonial laws are easily cited for evidence of the Decalogue’s influence on this prohibition, but consider more recent declarations, such as from the 1951 Louisiana Supreme Court, which recognized:

In the Ten Commandments, the basic law of all Christian countries, is found the admonition “Thou shalt not steal.”³²

In 1940, the Supreme Court of California had similarly declared:

“Thou shalt not steal” applies with equal force and propriety to the industrialist of a complex civilization as to the simple herdsman of ancient Israel.³³

And in 1914, a federal court ruled that the Constitution’s “takings clause” prohibiting government seizure of private property was an embodiment of the Decalogue’s Eighth Command against theft, including government theft.³⁴

9. Do not perjure yourself.

A 1642 Connecticut law declared:

If any man rise up by false witness, wittingly and of purpose to take away any man’s life, he shall be put to death. Deut. 19:16, 18, 19.³⁵

For over three centuries, civil laws against perjury were openly acknowledged to be derived from the Decalogue, as when the 1924 Oregon Supreme Court declared:

No official is above the law. “Thou shalt not bear false witness” is a command of the Decalogue, and that forbidden act is denounced by statute as a felony.³⁶

10. Do not covet.

The Tenth Command actually forms the basis for many of the prohibitions given in the other commandments. That is, a violation of this commandment frequently precedes a violation of the others, particularly the command against stealing. As William Penn, the framer of the original laws of Pennsylvania, acknowledged:

He that covets can no more be a moral man than he that steals since he does so in his mind. Nor can he be one that robs his neighbor of his credit, or that craftily undermines him of his trade or office.³⁷

Founding Father John Adams also granted the importance of this commandment:

The moment the idea is admitted into society that property is not as sacred as the laws of God, and that there is not a force of law and public justice to protect it, anarchy and tyranny commence. If “Thou shalt not covet” and “Thou shalt not steal” were not commandments of Heaven, they must be made inviolable precepts in every society before it can be civilized or made free.³⁸

Many courts have acceded the numerous other categories of laws to which this provision of the Decalogue directly applies.

For example, in 1895, the California Supreme Court cited this prohibition as the basis of civil laws against defamation.³⁹ In 1904, the Court of Appeals in West Virginia cited it as the basis of laws preventing election fraud.⁴⁰ In 1951, the Oregon Supreme Court cited this part of the Decalogue as the basis of civil laws against modern forms of cattle rustling.⁴¹ And in 1958, a Florida appeals court cited it as the basis of laws targeting white-collar crime. ⁴² There are numerous other examples establishing that this commandment of the Decalogue had a substantial influence on many other civil laws.

Conclusion

There are hundreds more examples irrefutably demonstrating the substantial influence of the Ten Commandments on American civil law. So clear and compelling is the historical evidence that it has been consistently acknowledged by courts across America, such as when the 1917 Supreme Court of North Carolina affirmed:

Our laws are founded upon the Decalogue, not that every case can be exactly decided according to what is there enjoined, but we can never safely depart from this short but great declaration of moral principles without founding the law upon the sand instead of upon the eternal rock of justice and equity.⁴³

In 1950, the Florida Supreme Court similarly pointed out:

A people unschooled about the sovereignty of God, the Ten Commandments, and the ethics of Jesus could never have evolved the Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution. There is not one solitary fundamental principle of our democratic policy that did not stem directly from the basic moral concepts as embodied in the Decalogue and the ethics of Jesus.⁴⁴

In short, the Ten Commandments not only formed the basis of the Moral Law in America but were also a direct influence on its civil statutory laws. The effect of the commandments produced a truly civilized society, for as a matter of civil policy it matters not one whit if my neighbor is an atheist or opponent of Christianity, but if he will nevertheless govern his behavior by the basic values found in the Ten Commandments—that is, if he will refrain from killing me, stealing my property, or taking my wife—he will make a good citizen, regardless of whether or not he holds any specific religious beliefs. As John Adams affirmed, even if the Ten Commandments “were not commandments of Heaven, they must be made inviolable precepts in every society before it can be civilized or made free.”⁴⁵

Endnotes

¹ John Quincy Adams, Letters of John Quincy Adams, to His Son, on the Bible and Its Teachings (Auburn: James M. Alden, 1850), 61, 70-71.
² Noah Webster, “Reply to a Letter of David McClure on the Subject of the Proper Course of Study in the Girard College, Philadelphia,” October 25, 1836, A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary and Moral Subjects (New York: Webster & Clark, 1843), 291-292.
³ Glassroth v. Moore, 333 F.3d 1282, 1285 (2003), cert. denied, 540 U.S. 1000; Professor Paul Finkelman, “The Ten Commandments on the Courthouse Lawn and Elsewhere,” Fordham Law Review (2005), 73:1477-1520.
⁴ Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677, n16 (2005) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
⁵ “Articles, Laws, and Orders, Divine, Politic and Martial for the Colony of Virginia,” 1610-1611, For the Colony in Virginea Britannia Lawes Divine, Morall and Martiall, etc., Compiled by William Strachey, ed., David H. Flaherty (Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1969), 10.
⁶ “Massachusetts Body Of Liberties,” 1641, Documents of the Constitution of England and America, from Magna Charta to the Federal Constitution of 1789, ed. Francis Bowen (Cambridge: John Bartlett, 1854), 71.
⁷ “General Laws and Liberties of New Hampshire, Cappitall Laws, Idollitry, Section 1” 1680, Documents and Records related to the Province of New-Hampshire, ed., Nathaniel Bouton (Concord: George E. Jenks, State Printer, 1867), 383.
⁸ Daniel Dorchester, Christianity in the United States from the First Settlement Down to the Present Time (New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1895), 122.
⁹ Noah Webster, Letters to a Young Gentleman Commencing His Education (New Haven: Howe & Spalding, 1823), 8.
¹⁰ See, for example, “Articles, Laws, and Orders, Divine, Politic and Martial for the Colony of Virginia,” 1610-1611, For the Colony in Virginea Britannia Lawes Divine, Flaherty (1969), 10-11; The Code of 1650 (Hartford: Silas Andrus, 1825), 30; and many others.
¹¹ “Articles, Laws, and Orders, Divine, Politic and Martial for the Colony of Virginia,” 1610-1611, For the Colony in Virginea Britannia Lawes Divine, Flaherty (1969), 11; “General Laws and Liberties of New Hampshire,” 1680, 383; Charles J. Hoadly, Records of the Colony or Jurisdiction of New Haven, From May, 1653, to the Union, Together With the New Haven Code of 1656 (Hartford: Chase, Lockwood and Company, 1858), 605; “An Act to Restrain People from Labor on the First Day of the Week,” passed October 4, 1705, Laws of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: John Bioren, 1810), I:25-26; “Title 160: Sunday,” 1741, Alphabetical Digest of the Public Statute Law of South Carolina (Charleston: John Hoff, 1814), 2:272-275; “Vice and Immorality, Section IV,” A Manual of The Laws of North Carolina (Raleigh: J. Gales and W. Boylan, 1808), 2:229; “An Act for the Due Observation of the Sabbath, or Lord’s Day,” The Public Statute Laws of the State of Connecticut (Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1808), I:577-578; etc.
¹² George Washington, The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1934), 11:342-343; General Orders, Cambridge, August 5, 1775, 3:402-403; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Morristown, April 12, 1777, 7:407; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Morristown, May 17, 1777, 8:77, General Orders, Head-Quarters, Morristown, May 24, 1777, 8:114; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Middle Brook, May 31, 1777, 8:153; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Middle Brook, June 28, 1777, 8:308; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Pennybacker’s Mills, September 27, 1777, 9:275; General Orders, Head-Quarters, Perkiomy, October 7, 1777, 9:329; etc.
¹³ “An Act for the Due Observation of the Sabbath,” passed March 9, 1787, Statutes of the State of Vermont (Bennington: Anthony Haswell, 1791), 155-157.
¹⁴ “Of the Observance of the Lord’s Day and the Prevention and Punishment of Immorality,” The Revised Statutes of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (Boston: Dutton & Wentworth, 1836), 385-386.
¹⁵ “An Act for the Effectual Suppression of Vice, and Punishing the Disturbers of Religious Worship, and Sabbath Breakers,” passed December 26, 1792, The Revised Code of the Laws of Virginia (Richmond: Thomas Ritchie, 1819), I:554-556. See also ThomasJefferson, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), II:322.
¹⁶ “An Act for Suppressing Vice and Immorality,” passed March 16, 1798, Laws of the State of New Jersey (New Brunswick: Abraham Blauvelt, 1800), 329-333.
¹⁷ “An Act for the Better Observation of the Lord’s Day, and for Repealing All the Laws Heretofore Made for that Purpose,” passed December 24, 1799, Constitution and Laws of the State of New Hampshire (Dover: Samuel Bragg, 1805), 290-293.
¹⁸ “An Act Providing for the Due Observation of the Lord’s Day,” Laws of the State of Maine (Hallowell: Calvin Spaulding, 1822), 67-71.
¹⁹ See, for example, James Coffield Mitchell, The Tennessee Justices’ Manual (Nashville: J. C. Mitchell and C. C. Norvell, 1834), 427-428; George C. Edwards, A Treatise on the Powers and Duties of Justices of the Peace and Town Officers, in the State of New York (Ithaca: Mack, Andrus, and Woodruff, 1836), 386-387; etc.
²⁰ State v. Chicago, B. & Q. R. Co., 143 S.W. 785, 803 (Mo. 1912).
²¹ Paramount-Richards Theatres v. City of Hattiesburg, 49 So.2d 574, 577 (Miss. 1950).
²² Bertera’s Hopewell Foodland, Inc. v. Masters, 236 A.2d 197, 200-201 (Pa. 1967).
²³ McGowan v. Maryland, 366 U. S. 420 (1961).
²⁴ “Capital Laws of Connecticut,” 1642, The Blue Laws of New Haven Colony, Usually Called Blue Laws of Connecticut (Hartford: Case, Tiffany & Co., 1838), 103.
²⁵ Ruiz v. Clancy, 157 So. 737, 738 (La. Ct. App. 1934), citing Caldwell v. Henmen, 5 Rob. 20.
²⁶ “Massachusetts Body Of Liberties,” 1641, Documents of the Constitution of England and America, from Magna Charta to the Federal Constitution of 1789, ed. Francis Bowen (Cambridge: John Bartlett, 1854), 72.
²⁷ Young v. Commonwealth, 245 Ky. 570, 53 S.W.2d 963 (Ky. Ct. App. 1932).
²⁸ “Massachusetts Body Of Liberties,” 1641, Documents of the Constitution, ed. Bowen (1854), 72.
²⁹ “An Act Against Adultery, Polygamy, and Fornication,” passed March 8, 1787, Statutes of the State of Vermont (Bennington: Anthony Haswell, 1791), 16-17.
³⁰ Hardin v. State, 39 Tex.Crim. 426 (1898).
³¹ Schreifels v. Schreifels, 287 P.2d 1001, 1005 (Wash. 1955).
³² Succession of Onorato, 51 So.2d 804, 810 (La. 1951).
³³ Hollywood Motion Picture Equipment Co. v. Furer, 105 P.2d 299, 301 (Cal. 1940).
³⁴ Pennsylvania Co. v. United States, 214 F. 445, 455 (W.D.Pa. 1914).
³⁵ “Capital Laws of Connecticut,” 1642, The Blue Laws of New Haven Colony, Usually Called Blue Laws of Connecticut (Hartford: Case, Tiffany & Co., 1838), 103.
³⁶ Watts v. Gerking, 228 P. 135, 141 (Or. 1924).
³⁷ William Penn, Fruits of Solitude, In Reflections and Maxims Relating To The Conduct of Human Life (London: James Phillips, 1790), 132.
³⁸ John Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America (Philadelphia: William Young, 1797), 3:217.
³⁹ Weinstock, Lubin & Co. v. Marks, 42 P. 142, 145 (Cal. 1895).
⁴⁰ Doll v. Bender, 47 S.E. 293, 300-01 (W.Va. 1904) (Dent, J. concurring).
⁴¹ Swift & Co. v. Peterson, 233 P.2d 216, 231 (Or. 1951).
⁴² Chisman v. Moylan, 105 So.2d 186, 189 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1958).
⁴³ Commissioners of Johnston County v. Lacy, 93 S.E. 482, 487 (N.C. 1917).
⁴⁴ State v. City of Tampa, 48 So.2d 78, 79 (Fla. 1950).
⁴⁵ John Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America (Philadelphia: William Young, 1797), 3:217.

The Revelatory Source for the Constitutional Separation of Powers

Thoughts on Jeremiah 17:9

The separation of powers and reciprocal checks and balances incorporated throughout the Constitution is still heralded as one of the most important features of American government, enabling it not only to survive but to thrive for over two centuries. History is filled with opposite examples showing that when government power was centralized in one body or leader, that government always became abusive and resulted in national ruin. The Founding Fathers not only had these examples of history to guide them, but they had the wisdom found in the Bible.

The love of power, and our propensity to abuse it, finds its root in the human heart. Jeremiah 17:9 declares: “The heart is more deceitful than all else and is desperately sick; who can understand it?” This wellknown verse encapsulated what Calvinistic ministers and theologians termed the “depravity of man” (that the natural heart of man easily embraced moral and civil degradation). It was a frequent topic for sermons in the Founding Era. The Founding Fathers understood the significance of this verse and openly cited it, as when John Adams reminded Americans:

Let me conclude by advising all men to look into their own hearts, which they will find to be “deceitful above all things and desperately wicked” [Jeremiah 17:9].¹

Those ignorant of the Bible often believe in the innate goodness of man—that man will naturally do what is right. However, experience regularly confirms the opposite: without a heart regenerated by the power of God, man will routinely do what is wrong. Adams specifically rejected any notion of the innate goodness of man, especially when it came to government:

To expect self-denial from men when they have a majority in their favor, and consequently power to gratify themselves, is to disbelieve all history and universal experience – it is to disbelieve revelation and the Word of God, which informs us “the heart is deceitful above all things and desperately wicked” [Jeremiah 17:9]. . . . There is no man so blind as not to see that to talk of founding a government upon a supposition that nations and great bodies of men left to themselves will practice a course of self-denial is either to babble like a newborn infant or to deceive like an unprincipled impostor.²

And even those who had experienced a regenerated heart through the power of God in Christ nevertheless knew enough about the truth of this verse and human nature to not even fully trust themselves to be above corruption. As John Quincy Adams confessed:

I believe myself sincere; but the heart is deceitful above all things and desperately wicked [Jeremiah 17:9]. I do not believe the total depravity of man, but I am deeply conscious of the frailty of my own nature.³

Understanding this principle from Jeremiah 17—a principle that was accepted by all sides of the theological spectrum—the Founders knew that government would be much safer if all power did not repose in the same authority. Making practical application of this Biblical truth, they divided and checked power between branches so that if one branch behaved wickedly, the other two might still check and stop it. As George Washington explained:

A just estimate of that love of power and proneness to abuse it which predominates in the human heart is sufficient to satisfy us of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in the exercise of political power by dividing and distributing it into different depositories . . . has been evinced [demonstrated] by experiments ancient and modern, some of them in our country and under our own eyes.⁴

James Madison agreed:

What is government itself but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed, and in the next place oblige it to control itself.⁵

This remarkable feature of American government—the separation of powers and reciprocal checks and balances—can be attributed to the Founders’ understanding of Jeremiah 17:9.

Endnotes

¹ John Adams, “On Private Revenge III,” published in the Boston Gazette, September 5, 1763, The Works of John Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), 3:443.

² John Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America (London: John Stockdale, 1794), 3:289, “Letter VI. The Right Constitution of a Commonwealth, examined.”

³ John Quincy Adams, diary entry of November 16, 1842, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co, 1876), XI:270.

⁴ George Washington, Address of George Washington, President of the United States, and Late Commander in Chief of the American Army, to the People of the United States, Preparatory to His Declination (Baltimore: Christopher Jackson, 1796), 13.

⁵ Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, & James Madison, The Federalist on the New Constitution; Written in 1788 (Philadelphia: Benjamin Warner, 1818), 281, Federalist #51 likely by James Madison.

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Thoughts on Deuteronomy 5

1. Have No Other Gods.

2. Have No Idols.

3. Honor God’s Name.

4. Honor the Sabbath Day.

5. Honor Your Parents.

6. Do not murder.

7. Do not commit adultery.

8. Do Not Steal.

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10. Do not covet.

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Thoughts on Jeremiah 17:9

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